Translated from Philip Schaff's History of The Christian Church

第八章 使徒教会中的基督徒生活

目录

§ 44. 基督教的能力

§ 45. 属灵的恩赐

§ 46. 个人生命中的基督教

§ 47. 基督教与家庭

§ 48. 基督教与奴隶制度

§ 49. 基督教与社会

§ 50. 各教会的属灵状况——亚细亚的七教会

史料

福音书中所呈现的基督的教训和榜样，以及《使徒行传》和各书信中所呈现的使徒的教训和榜样；将这些与拉比的伦理及犹太社会的状况，并与希腊的哲学体系及塞涅卡 (Seneca)、塔西佗 (Tacitus)、罗马讽刺诗人等著作中所描述的罗马帝国的道德状况，加以比较和对照。

参考文献

I. 各部《使徒教会史》(Histories of the Apost. Church) 中的有关章节：尼安德 (Neander)：第I卷，第229–283页（德文版）；沙弗 (Schaff)：第109–123节（第433–492页）；兰格 (Lange)：第II卷，第495–534页；魏茨泽克 (Weizsäcker)：第647–698页。

2. 施密德 (Schmid)、勒斯 (Reuss)、鲍尔 (Baur)、魏斯 (Weiss) 等人论使徒时期神学的著作。

3. 施莱尔马赫 (Schleiermacher)、罗特 (Rothe)、尼安德、施密德、武特克 (Wuttke)、哈勒斯 (Harless)、马滕森 (Martensen)、卢塔特 (Luthardt) 的基督教伦理学体系著作，以及莱基 (Lecky) 的《欧洲道德史》(History of European Morals，1869年)，第I卷，第357页及后。

4. A. 托马 (A. Thoma，曼海姆牧师)：《新约时期基督教伦理学史》(Geschichte der christlichen Sittenlehre in der Zeit des Neuen Testamentes)，哈勒姆 (Haarlem)，1879年（380页）。这是泰勒神学会 (Teyler Theol. Society) 的获奖征文。此书首次尝试独立撰写一部批判性的新约伦理学史，但出自图宾根学派 (Tübingen school) 的否定立场，因此很不能令人满意。全书分为三部分：I. 耶稣的伦理；II. 保罗的伦理；III. 会众的伦理。

V. 论述后使徒时期基督徒生活的著作（凯夫 [Cave]、阿诺德 [Arnold]、施密特 [Schmidt]、沙斯泰尔 [Chastel]、普雷桑塞 [Pressensé] 等人的著作），将在第二时期中介绍。

§ 44. 基督教的能力

实践中的基督教是一种新生命的彰显；这是一种属灵的生命（有别于理智和道德的生命），一种超自然的生命（有别于自然的生命）；它是圣洁与平安的生命，是与父、子、圣灵联合并相交的生命；它是永生，始于重生，终至复活而达到顶点。它抓住人之人格最深处的中心，使人脱离罪的辖制，使他在基督里与上帝建立生命的联合；它从这一中心出发，作为洁净、提升和规范的力量，作用于人的一切官能——情感、意志和理智——甚至将身体也改变为圣灵的殿。

在德行与敬虔的理论和实践上，基督教远超一切其他宗教。它提出了爱上帝、爱人的最高标准；这不只是抽象的教义，或努力与盼望的目标，而是在耶稣基督的位格中成为活生生的事实；他的生活和榜样，比一切圣贤和立法者的格言与训诫更有能力和影响。行胜于言。Praecepta docent, exempla trahunt.（训诫教导人，榜样吸引人。）最精良的道德哲学体系，也未能使世界重生并征服世界。基督的福音已经做到了，而且正在不断地如此行。希腊和罗马最有智慧的人，认可奴隶制、多妻制、纳妾、压迫、复仇和杀婴；或者，他们以自己的行为背弃了那些较为纯正的格言。犹太人的伦理标准高得多；然而，他们的族长、君王或先知，没有一个自称完全，而圣经也诚实地记载了亚伯拉罕、雅各、摩西、大卫和所罗门的软弱与罪，正如记载他们的美德一样。

但基督从马槽到十字架的品格，却毫无玷污和瑕疵；他无可指责，也无可怀疑，无论朋友还是仇敌，都承认他是世上有史以来最纯洁、也最有智慧的人。在他里面，上帝与人、人同上帝之间的接近，达到了最高程度；他体现了理想与现实、神性与人性之间所能想象、所能达到的最充分的和谐。基督教会在有罪之人的手中可能堕落，但其创始者的教训与生活，却是永不枯竭的洁净泉源。

这种与上帝和谐、献身于人类福祉的完全生命，要从基督传给他的跟随者。基督徒的生活就是效法基督的生活。在这十八个世纪中，从那在教会中活着并掌权的基督之道与基督之灵，不断涌流出救赎、成圣和使人得荣耀的能力，临到个人、家庭和各国；这能力还要继续涌流，直到世界变为天国，上帝在万有之中成为一切。

基督教的超自然起源，最有力的证据之一，就是它远远超越了最初信奉者的自然教养和道德标准。那最完全的教义和生命，竟由没有受过教育的加利利渔夫来描述；他们从前从未走出巴勒斯坦，几乎不能读写！而天国最深奥的奥秘——道成肉身、救赎、重生、复活——竟由使徒教导给那些由贫穷无知的农民、奴隶和获释奴隶组成的会众！因为蒙召的，“按着肉体有智慧的不多，有能力的不多，有尊贵的也不多”；“上帝却拣选了世上愚拙的，叫有智慧的羞愧；又拣选了世上软弱的，叫那强壮的羞愧；上帝也拣选了世上卑贱的、被人厌恶的，以及那无有的，为要废掉那有的，使一切有血气的，在上帝面前一个也不能自夸。但你们得在基督耶稣里，是本乎上帝，上帝又使他成为我们的智慧、公义、圣洁、救赎。如经上所记：夸口的，当指着主夸口。”¹

如果将使徒教会的道德风气与周围犹太教和异教的实际状况加以比较，其反差之惊人，就像有活泉涌流、棕树高耸的青翠绿洲，与遍布沙石的荒凉沙漠之间的对照。犹太教通过其最高审判机关，犯下了罪中之罪，将世界的救主钉在十字架上，并加速走向自己的毁灭。异教恰由提比略 (Tiberius)、卡利古拉 (Caligula)、尼禄 (Nero) 和图密善 (Domitian) 这些帝王中的恶魔来代表，呈现出一幅腐败衰亡、无可救药的图景；不仅圣保罗用最阴暗的色彩描绘了这幅图景，与他同时代的一位异教徒——最有智慧的斯多葛派伦理家、尼禄的老师及其牺牲者——也作了同样的描绘。²

附注

《超自然宗教》(Supernatural Religion) 的理性主义作者（第II卷，第487页）作出了以下引人注目的让步：“耶稣的教训将道德提升到人类所已达到、甚至所能达到的最高境界。他品格无与伦比的纯洁与崇高，使他那属灵宗教的影响倍增。他以其崇高的纯朴与真挚，超越了释迦牟尼 (Sâkya Muni) 在道德上的伟大，又使苏格拉底 (Socrates)、柏拉图 (Plato) 以及全体希腊哲学家的教训相形见绌——他们的教训虽大体可敬，却有时受到玷污。就我们所能判断的而言，他呈现了一种罕见的生活景象：始终高尚，始终与自己崇高的原则一致。因此，‘效法基督’几乎已成为宣讲其宗教的最终归结，并且必将继续成为使这宗教长存的最强大因素之一。”

莱基也是一位理性主义作家和历史学家，才识卓越，持论公允；他在《欧洲道德史》(History of European Morals，第II卷，第9页) 中作了这一重要评论：“将一种理想人格呈现给世界的使命，惟有基督教完成了。这一人格历经十八个世纪的一切变迁，始终在人心中激发炽热的爱；它已表明自己能够影响所有时代、民族、性情和境遇中的人；它不仅是德行的最高典范，也是促使人实践德行的最强大动力，其影响之深，使我们可以确实地说：那短短三年积极生活的朴实记载，在使人类重生、使人心柔和方面，比哲学家的一切论述和道德家的一切劝诫所成就的还要多。的确，基督徒生活中一切最美好、最纯洁的事物，都以此为泉源。在一切使教会蒙羞的罪恶与过失、教士权术、逼迫和狂热之中，教会仍在其创始者的品格和榜样中，保存着一项永存的重生原则。”

对此，我们还可以加上无神论哲学家约翰·斯图尔特·密尔 (John Stuart Mill) 的见证。这段话出自他的《有神论》(Theism) 一文，写于他去世（1873年）前不久，1874年收入《宗教三论》(Three Essays on Religion) 出版（美国版，第253页）：“最重要的是，基督教藉着在一位神圣的人物身上树立卓越的标准和效法的典范，对人的品格所产生的影响，其中最有价值的部分，即使是全然不信的人也能从中受益，而且人类再也不会失去它。因为基督教向信徒所举出的、作为人类完全典范的，与其说是上帝，不如说是基督。那经过理想化而如此深刻、有益地影响现代人心的，与其说是犹太人的上帝或自然界的上帝，不如说是道成肉身的上帝。无论理性批判还会从我们这里夺走什么，基督仍然留下；他是独一无二的人物，不仅与一切先于他的人不同，也同样与一切跟随他的人不同，甚至包括那些曾亲受他教导的人。有人说，福音书所呈现的基督并非历史上的人物，我们也不知道其中有多少可敬之处，是他的跟随者在传述中添加上去的；这种说法毫无用处。跟随者的传述足以加入不计其数的奇事，也可能已将一切据说他所行的神迹都添加了进去。但在他的门徒或他们所招收的信徒中，谁能编造出那些归于耶稣名下的言论，或想象出福音书所显明的生活与品格呢？当然不会是加利利的渔夫；也同样不会是圣保罗，他的品格和个性完全属于另一类型；更不会是早期基督教作家，在他们身上最明显不过的，就是他们里面的一切良善，全都来自那更高的源头，正如他们一向自认的那样。”

§ 45. 属灵的恩赐

参较《罗马书》12:3–9及《哥林多前书》12–14章的各家注释。

使徒教会自五旬节起，就获赐了使世界在道德上重生所必需的一切属灵恩赐。这些恩赐仿佛是她的新妇礼服，也是她抵御犹太人和外邦人反对的全副军装。它们称为 charisms³，即恩典的赐予，与天然的禀赋有所区别，却并不与之对立。它们是圣灵在信徒里面为众人的益处而有的某些特殊能力和彰显。⁴ 因此，就其起源而言，它们是超自然的；但它们与天然的德性相对应，在运作时循着人的一切心智和道德官能，使这些官能发挥更高的作用，并将它们分别为圣，供基督使用。它们全都以信心为根基，而信心就是那“恩赐中的恩赐”。

属灵的恩赐可以分为三类：第一，关乎知识的理智恩赐，其性质主要是理论性的，首要涉及教义和神学；第二，关乎感受的情感恩赐，主要在敬拜上帝时显明，带来直接的造就；第三，关乎意志的实践性恩赐，专用于教会的组织、治理和纪律。然而，它们并非抽象地彼此分离，而是和谐地同工，以造就基督的身体为共同目标。新约特别提到了十种恩赐；前四种主要关乎教义，虽然并非仅限于此；其后两种关乎敬拜；最后四种则关乎治理和实际事务。

1. 智慧与知识的恩赐，⁵ 即对上帝话语的本质与体系，以及基督教救恩的各项教义，具有深刻洞察的恩赐。

2. 教导的恩赐。⁶ 即将知识的恩赐付诸实际应用的能力；也就是清楚讲解圣经，以教导并造就众人的能力。

3. 说预言的恩赐，⁷ 与前两种相近，但主要诉诸敬虔的情感，而非思辨的反省，通常采用高度灵感的语言，而非逻辑阐释和论证的语言。它绝不限于预告未来的事件，而在于揭示上帝隐秘的旨意、圣经更深的含义、内心隐秘的光景、罪的深渊，以及救赎恩典的荣耀。它尤其显现于具有创造力的时期、伟大复兴的时代；教导的恩赐则更适合教会平静而自然成长的状态。二者不仅作用于教义和神学的领域，也作用于敬拜，因此从这一角度来看，也可以列入情感的恩赐之中。

4. 辨别诸灵的恩赐，⁸ 主要是藉着分辨真假先知、神圣的灵感与纯属人或出于撒但的狂热，为第三种恩赐提供指引。广义而言，它是一种深刻的辨识力，能够分辨真理与谬误，判断人在道德和宗教上的品格；这种圣洁的批判，对于基督教教义的纯洁以及教会纪律的施行，始终不可或缺。

5. 说方言的恩赐，⁹ 即说话者在不自觉的出神状态中发出的言语，听者若无翻译便不能明白——这一点与说预言不同，后者虽要求情感高度升华，却仍处于自觉的状态，能直接使会众得益处，因此保罗更看重它。¹⁰ 说方言是从属灵的出神状态中不由自主地发出的、如诗篇一般的祷告或歌唱，所用的是圣灵感动而生的一种特殊语言。灵魂几乎完全处于被动状态，仿佛一件乐器，圣灵在其上奏出属天的旋律。因此，严格说来，这种恩赐与教会在异族中间、藉外国语言的传播毫无关系，而纯粹是一种敬拜行为，首先造就说话者自己，其次才藉着翻译间接造就听者。诚然，它最初出现于五旬节那天，却是在彼得向众人讲道以前；彼得的讲道才是真正的宣教讲道。此后，我们又在哥尼流家中和哥林多会众中见到这种恩赐，作为造就信徒的途径，而不是——至少不是直接——为了不信的听者；尽管它对他们确实是一个意味深长的神迹，¹¹ 使他们注意到教会中超自然的能力。

6. 翻方言的恩赐¹² 是说方言（glossolalia）的补充，将祷告和歌唱从灵与出神状态的语言¹³ 译成悟性与清醒自觉的语言，¹⁴ 从而使那恩赐能造就会众。由于反思在这里占主导地位，将这种恩赐归入第一类与归入第二类同样恰当。

7. 服事和帮助的恩赐，¹⁵ 即一种特殊的才干，主要适用于执事与女执事的职分，或教会对穷人和病人的经常照料；广义而言，也适用于基督教一切慈善和济世的工作。

8. 治理教会与牧养灵魂的恩赐，¹⁶ 对教会所有牧者和治理者都不可或缺，尤其是使徒及使徒时代的同工；他们各自工作范围越广，就越需要这种恩赐。彼得告诫与他同作长老的人，要防备圣职等级制度的傲慢和辖制良心的诱惑，后来竟有那么多司祭、主教、牧首和教皇犯下这样的罪；他又指引他们仰望那位大牧者和大监督的崇高榜样，他以无限的爱为羊舍命。¹⁷

9. 行神迹的恩赐，¹⁸ 是使徒及司提反等使徒时代的同工所具有的能力，凭借非凡的力量或信心，奉耶稣的名，为他的荣耀，藉着话语、祷告和按手，医治各样身体的疾病、赶逐污鬼、使死人复活，并行其他类似的事。这些神迹是使徒所受神圣差遣的外在凭据和印证，因为在那个时代、那个民族中，信心需要这类可感知的帮助。但随着基督教在世上确立，它便能指出其持续产生的道德果效，作为自身真实性的最佳证据，外在身体神迹的必要性也就不复存在了。

10. 最后是爱的恩赐，它在一切恩赐中最伟大、最宝贵、最有益、最必需，也最持久。圣保罗在《哥林多前书》第十三章中，仿佛亲见并享受那位本身就是无限之爱的上帝，以天使之笔描绘并颂扬了它。¹⁹ 爱是天然的仁慈和情感经过圣化，被提升到属灵的领域；更确切地说，它是人藉着经历上帝在基督里施行拯救的爱，而在灵魂中产生的一种新的、属天的情感。正如信心是一切属灵恩赐的根基，爱严格说来也不是一种独立的恩赐，而是一切恩赐的灵魂，防止它们被滥用于自私和野心的目的，使它们服务于共同的益处，并统御、联合、成全它们。惟有爱赋予它们真正的价值；若没有爱，即使能说天使的方言，具有移山的信心，在上帝面前也算不得什么。爱将天地拥入怀中。它“凡事相信”；当信心失落时，它“凡事盼望”；当盼望失落时，它“凡事忍耐”；但它“永不止息”。正如爱在地上一切恩赐中最为必需，它也将比其他一切恩赐存留得更久，成为天上众圣徒的装饰与喜乐。因为爱是上帝最内在的本质，仿佛是他的心，是他一切属性的根基，也是一切作为的动因。它是创造、救赎和成圣的起点与终点——是使我们与三一上帝联合的纽带，是基督教的首要美德，是律法的成全，是联络全德的纽带，也是福乐的泉源。

§ 46. 个人生命中的基督教

基督教使人改变的属灵能力，首先显现在个人的生命中。使徒和最初的基督徒所达到的道德与敬虔境界，远远超过异教道德的典范人物，甚至超过犹太教的圣徒。他们每日的生活行动，都是与基督活泼的联合，时时寻求上帝的荣耀和人的得救。许多首要的美德，例如谦卑和爱仇敌，在基督教的时代到来以前都是不为人知的。

彼得、保罗和约翰既代表基督教神学的各种主要形式或类型，也代表基督徒敬虔的各种主要形式或类型。他们并非没有缺点；事实上，他们自己也承认，只有一位是无罪的，就是他们的主和夫子，并且承认自己的亏欠；²⁰ 然而，在一个有罪的世界中，他们已尽可能地接近完全；他们的生平与著作对教会历世历代所产生的道德影响，实在无法估量。他们各人都以独特的方式彰显基督的精神与生命。因为福音并不毁灭人天然的才干与性情，而是救赎它们，使之成圣。它将彼得的热烈、保罗的活力和约翰的深思，都分别为圣，同来事奉上帝。福音使外邦人的使徒骤然归信，从教会最危险的仇敌变为最有力的朋友，在此最鲜明地彰显了它再造生命的能力。上帝的灵临到保罗，如同势不可挡的暴风；临到约翰，则如轻柔而沁人心脾的微风。但在他们众人里面，所内住的都是同一崭新、超自然、神圣的生命原则。他们全都是基督教活的辩护，凡爱真理的心，都无法抗拒其力量。

也当留意福音在新约女性人物身上所产生的道德果效。基督教将妇女从她在犹太教和异教世界中所处的奴役地位，提升到她真正的道德尊严与重要地位；使她与男子一同承受同样的救恩，²¹ 并为她开辟一个施展最高尚、最优美德性的领域，却不像现代那些冒充慈善的解放方案那样，将她推出其适宜的私人家庭生活范围，从而夺去她最美丽的装饰和独有的魅力。

童贞女马利亚标志着女性历史的转折点。作为第二个亚当——基督——的母亲，她与夏娃相对应，在属灵的意义上是众生之母。²² 在这位“在妇女中有福的”身上，全体女性都蒙了福，那笼罩着堕落时代的咒诅也被除去了。诚然，她并非没有本罪和原罪，尽管罗马教会自1854年12月8日以来，毫无圣经根据地如此教导。恰恰相反，作为亚当的女儿，她与所有人一样，需要藉着基督得蒙救赎和成圣；惟有基督是一切无罪圣洁的创始者，而她自己也明明称上帝为她的救主。²³ 然而，在这位世界救主的母亲和养育者身上，我们无疑可以、也应当敬重——却不应敬拜——基督徒女性美德的典范，即纯洁、温柔、朴实、谦卑、全然顺服上帝，以及毫无保留地委身基督的典范。在她之外，我们还见到主周围一群可爱的女门徒和女性朋友：革罗罢（Clopas）的妻子马利亚；雅各和约翰的母亲撒罗米（Salome）；坐在耶稣脚前的伯大尼的马利亚；她那忙碌而好客的姊妹马大；主曾医治她、使她脱离鬼附的抹大拉的马利亚；那用悔罪的眼泪洗主的脚、又用头发擦干的有罪女人；以及所有那些高贵的妇女，她们在人子在世贫穷的时候，以爱心的馈赠供给他，²⁴ 最后仍留在他的十字架旁，²⁵ 又在复活的清晨最先来到他敞开的坟墓前。²⁶

此后，我们所见的妇女，不再是男子的奴隶和情欲的工具，而是丈夫的骄傲与喜乐，是教养儿女走向美德与敬虔的慈母，是家庭的装饰与珍宝，是忠实的姊妹，是在基督教各样慈善工作中热心服事会众的人，是仁爱的姊妹，是具有超人勇气的殉道者，是守护和平的天使，是纯洁、谦卑、温柔、忍耐、仁爱以及至死忠贞的榜样。这样的妇女，从前未曾有过。异教徒利巴尼乌斯（Libanius）是古希腊文化的热烈颂扬者，当他望着金口约翰（Chrysostom）的母亲，惊叹道：“基督徒拥有何等的妇女啊！”他便不由自主地颂扬了基督教。

§ 47. 基督教与家庭

H. 格雷瓜尔（H. Gregoire）：《论基督教对妇女地位的影响》（De l’influence du christianisme sur la condition des femmes.）。巴黎，1821年。

F. 明特（F. Münter）：《君士坦丁大帝以前异教家庭中的基督徒妇女》（Die Christin im heidnischen Hause vor den Zeiten Constantin’s des Grossen.）。哥本哈根，1828年。

朱莉娅·卡瓦纳（Julia Kavanagh）：《基督教妇女：敬虔与慈善行为的典范》（Women of Christianity, Exemplary for Acts of Piety and Charity.）。伦敦（Lond.），1851年；纽约（N. York），1866年。

基督教如此将女性提升到真正的自由与尊严，也就改变并圣化了整个家庭生活。它废除一夫多妻制，使一夫一妻制成为婚姻的正当形式；它谴责纳妾以及一切形式的淫乱和不洁。它正确阐明夫妻之间、父母与儿女之间的相互义务，并将婚姻呈现为基督与其新妇——教会——奥秘联合的写照，从而赋予婚姻神圣的性质和属天的目的。²⁷

从此，家庭虽然仍如以往一样，扎根于自然的土壤、两性爱情的奥秘之中，却被赋予了属灵的性质，成为培育最纯洁、最高尚美德的园地，成为一个小小的教会。在这里，父亲作为牧者，每日领全家进入上帝话语的草场；又作为祭司，将全家共同的祈求、代祷、感恩和赞美，作为祭物献给主。

福音不仅使婚姻生活分别为圣，也使作为常规之例外的独身生活分别为圣，用以服事上帝的国；保罗、巴拿巴和约翰的榜样，²⁸以及宣教与禁欲敬虔的历史，都向我们表明了这一点。独身的热忱如此迅速地遍及古代教会，必须视为对异教徒家庭生活之腐败与悲惨状况的一种片面反应；然而，这种反应也是自然的，而且总的说来是有益的。

§ 48. 基督教与奴隶制度

参考文献

H. 瓦隆 (H. Wallon，巴黎近代史教授)：《古代奴隶制度史》(Histoire de l’esclavage dans l’antiquité)，巴黎 (Par.)，1879年，3卷。对东方、希腊和罗马的奴隶制度有极为详尽的论述，并有一篇论近代殖民地黑人奴隶制度的导论。

奥古斯坦·科尚 (Augustin Cochin，巴黎市前市长及市议员，ancien maire et conseiller municipal de la Ville de Paris)：《奴隶制度的废除》(L’abolition de l’esclavage)，巴黎，1862年，2卷。本书不仅论述近代奴隶制度的废除，第II卷第348–470页还对基督教与奴隶制度的关系作了精辟的探讨。

默勒 (Möhler，罗马天主教徒，卒于1848年)：《废除奴隶制度史片断》(Bruchstücke aus der Geschichte der Aufhebung der Sklaverei)，1834年。（《杂著集》〔Vermischte Schriften〕，第II卷，第54页。）

H. 维斯克曼 (H. Wiskemann)：《奴隶制度》(Die Sklaverei)。莱顿 (Leiden)，1866年。一篇获奖论文。

P. 阿拉尔 (P. Allard)：《从教会初期到西方罗马统治终结时期的基督徒奴隶》(Les esclaves chrétiens depuis les premiers temps de l’église jusqu’ à la fin de la domination romaine en Occident)，巴黎 (Paris)，1876年（480页）。

G. V. 莱希勒 (G. V. Lechler)：《奴隶制度与基督教》(Sklaverei und Christenthum)。莱比锡 (Leipz.)，1877–78年。

菲利普·沙弗 (Ph. Schaff)：《奴隶制度与圣经》(Slavery and the Bible)，载其《基督与基督教》(Christ and Christianity)，纽约 (N. York) 及伦敦，1885年，第184–212页。

参看保罗《腓利门书》的各家注释，尤其是布劳内 (Braune) 和莱特福特 (Lightfoot) 的注释（后者见《歌罗西书与腓利门书》〔Colossians and Philemon〕，1875年）。

钱宁 (Channing)、帕克 (Parker)、霍奇 (Hodge)、巴恩斯 (Barnes)、威尔逊 (Wilson)、奇弗 (Cheever)、布莱德索 (Bledsoe) 等美国作者关于奴隶制度的大量著作，所论都是黑人奴隶制度问题；如今，这一制度已在上帝的护理之下，借着1861–65年的内战而被废除。

奴隶制度的逐渐消亡，应当归功于基督教。

这一罪恶如同咒诅，笼罩着万国；在基督的时代，世上大多数人都被束缚在如牲畜般卑贱的境地中——即使在文明的希腊和罗马，奴隶的人数也超过了生来自由者与获释奴隶的总数。古代最伟大的哲学家为奴隶制度辩护，认为这是自然且必要的制度；亚里士多德 (Aristotle) 更宣称，一切蛮族生来就是奴隶，除了服从以外，别无所长。按照罗马法律，“奴隶在国家中没有人格，没有姓名，没有名位，没有户籍”；他们没有婚姻权，也不受法律保护以免配偶遭人通奸；他们可以像私人财产一样被买卖或赠送；主人可以任意对他们施以酷刑以取得证词，甚至将他们处死。用一位著名民法学者的话说，罗马帝国奴隶的“处境比任何牲畜都要恶劣得多”。老加图 (Cato the elder) 把年老患病的奴隶赶出家门。哈德良 (Hadrian) 虽是最仁慈的皇帝之一，却曾故意用笔戳瞎一名奴隶的眼睛。罗马贵妇梳妆时，半裸着身子在旁伺候的婢女，即使犯了最微小的过失，也会受到尖锐铁器的惩罚。这种法律上的贬抑和残酷的待遇，对奴隶的品格产生了最恶劣的影响。古代作家形容他们卑鄙、怯懦、卑躬屈膝、虚伪、贪食、放纵、好色；而当他们居于别人之上时，又冷酷残忍。罗马帝国流行着一句谚语：“有多少奴隶，就有多少仇敌。”因此，奴隶起义的危险始终存在，且不止一次把共和国推到毁灭的边缘，使最严厉的自卫措施似乎也有了正当理由。

诚然，犹太教所持的立场比这高尚；但它仍容许奴隶制度存在，虽有明智的规定防止虐待，并有一条意义重大的条例：在预表神权国度更新的禧年，一切希伯来奴隶都应获得自由。²⁹

对于这种永久压迫、使人在道德上堕落的制度，福音主要不是以任何特定律法，而是以其全部精神来反对。福音从不提倡外在的暴力和革命手段；在当时，这些办法非但无益，反而有害。它所提供的是内在而根本的医治，先减轻这一罪恶，除去它的毒刺，最终使它完全废除。基督教首先要将人——无论其阶级或处境如何——从最恶劣的奴役，即罪的咒诅中救赎出来，赐给他真正属灵的自由；它确认所有人原初都同有上帝形象的合一性，并教导众人在基督里同蒙救赎，在上帝面前具有属灵的平等；³⁰它坚持爱是最高的义务和美德，而爱本身便从内里消弭社会的差别；它尤其将福音的安慰与慰藉传给一切贫穷、受逼迫和受压迫的人。保罗曾使逃奴阿尼西母归向基督，并归于自己的本分，随后将他送回地上的主人那里，好让他在名誉受损之处恢复自己的名誉；但保罗明确嘱咐腓利门，此后要接纳并对待这个奴仆，如同在基督里亲爱的弟兄，甚至如同使徒自己的心肝。在那个时代，在既定法律和习俗的范围内，实在无法设想还有比这更能根治此弊的办法。至于温文有礼、体贴入微，以及对一个贫苦奴隶的温柔同情，古代文献中也找不到任何作品能与这封短小的《腓利门书》相媲美。

这种贯穿整个新约的基督教之爱、仁慈、公义与自由的精神，事实上也已经在几乎所有文明国家中逐渐废除了奴隶制度；而且，它必不止息，直到罪与苦难的一切锁链都被打破，直到世人普遍承认蒙基督救赎之人在位格上永恒的尊严，直到福音所赐的自由与人类的弟兄关系完全实现。

关于希腊和罗马奴隶人数与处境的附注

据克特西克勒斯 (Ctesicles) 记载，在法勒隆的德米特里乌斯 (Demetrius the Phalerian) 执政时（公元前309年），阿提卡 (Attica) 有400,000名奴隶，10,000名外侨，却只有21,000名自由公民。在斯巴达 (Sparta)，这种比例失衡的程度更为严重。

至于罗马帝国，吉本 (Gibbon) 估计，克劳狄乌斯 (Claudius) 在位时，奴隶人数不下于总人口的一半，即约六千万人（第I卷，第52页，米尔曼〔Milman〕编，纽约〔N. Y.〕，1850年）。据罗伯逊 (Robertson) 所说，奴隶人数是自由公民的两倍；布莱尔 (Blair) 则估计，从征服希腊（公元前146年）至亚历山大·塞韦鲁 (Alexander Severna) 在位期间（公元222–235年），奴隶与自由人的比例超过三比一（见其论罗马奴隶制度的著作，爱丁堡〔Edinb.〕，1833年，第15页）。城市与乡村的比例当然很不相同。plebs urbana（城市平民）大多贫穷，无力蓄养奴隶；而且在城里供养奴隶，也比在乡间昂贵得多。马夸特 (Marquardt) 假定，罗马奴隶与自由人的比例为三比二。弗里德伦德尔 (Friedländer，《罗马风俗史》〔Sittengeschichte Roms〕，第I卷，第55页，第4版）认为，既然我们不知道富裕家庭的数目，就不可能作出正确的总体估计。但我们知道，公元24年，罗马曾因惧怕奴隶起义而陷入惊恐（塔西佗〔Tacit.〕，《编年史》〔Ann.〕，IV. 27）。据吉本（第I卷，第51页）所引，雅典奈乌斯 (Athenaeus) 断然声称，他认识极多 (pavmpolloi) 罗马人，各自拥有一万乃至两万名奴隶，不为实用，只为炫耀。在罗马的一座宅邸——时任城市长官佩达尼乌斯·塞昆杜斯 (Pedanius Secundus) 的宅邸——里，就供养着四百名奴隶；他们因未能阻止主人被杀，全部遭到处死（塔西佗，《编年史》，XIV. 42、43）。

库珀 (Cooper) 的《查士丁尼》(Justinian) 第411页引述泰勒 (Taylor)《民法》(Civil Law)，如此描述奴隶的法律地位：“奴隶被视为 pro nullis, pro mortuis, pro quadrupedibus（不存在的人、死人、四足牲畜）；不，他们的处境比任何牲畜都要恶劣得多。他们在国家中没有人格，没有姓名，没有名位，也没有户籍；法律不承认他们可以成为受侵害者；他们也不能经由购买或继承取得财产；他们没有继承人，因此不能立遗嘱；他们无权享有婚姻的权利与待遇，因此在配偶与人通奸时无法获得救济；他们也不能成为血亲或姻亲关系的主体，只能具有准血亲关系；他们可以像货物或动产一样被出售、转让或抵押，因为他们就是货物，也被当作货物看待；他们可以受到酷刑以取得证词，可以任凭主人裁量加以惩罚，甚至由主人行使权力将其处死；此外还有许多民事上的无权利状态，我没有篇幅一一列举。”吉本（第I卷，第48页）认为，“面对这种内部的敌人——他们不顾一切的起义曾不止一次使共和国濒临毁灭——依据自我保全这一重大法则，最严厉的规定和最残酷的待遇似乎也几乎可以得到辩护。”

奴隶个人所受的待遇，取决于主人的品性。一般而言，这种待遇严厉而残酷。圆形竞技场上血腥的表演，甚至使妇女细腻的感受也变得麻木。尤维纳利斯 (Juvenal) 描述过一位罗马女主人，命人当着她的面无情地鞭打女奴，直到行鞭者筋疲力尽；奥维德 (Ovid) 告诫贵妇，不要抓破为她们梳妆的婢女的脸，也不要把针刺进她们裸露的手臂；而在哈德良以前，女主人无需说明理由，就能判处奴隶钉十字架。参看弗里德伦德尔，第I卷，第466页所列引文。公允地说，第一、第二世纪的哲学家塞涅卡、普林尼 (Pliny) 和普鲁塔克 (Plutarch)，在这个问题上所持的看法比早期作家温和得多，并提倡仁慈地对待奴隶；安敦尼诸帝 (the Antonines) 也在一定程度上改善了奴隶的处境，将那屡遭滥用、操纵奴隶生死的裁判权，从私人手中收归官府。但那时，基督教的原则与情操已经在整个帝国广泛流传，甚至对有教养的异教徒也产生了无声的影响。可以说，基督教不断对周围世界施加这种不为人察觉、如空气般弥漫的影响；若无这种影响，世界的实际状况将恶劣得多。

§ 49. 基督教与社会

基督教以其如酵一般的力量，进入一个民族的全部国家生活与社会生活，引导它在一切真正文明的领域中走上进步的道路。诚然，它从不规定某一种特定的政体，并谨慎避免对政治和世俗事务作任何不当干预。它适应君主制与共和制，甚至在国家的压迫和逼迫之下也能兴盛，最初三个世纪的历史已充分证明这一点。但它教导一切政府的真正性质与目的，以及统治者与臣民的义务；它促进恶法和恶制的废除，以及良法和良制的建立；它在原则上既反对专制，也反对无政府状态；在任何政体之下，它都趋向秩序、合宜、公义、仁慈与和平；它使统治者心中充满向至高君王与审判者负责的意识，也使被统治者充满忠诚、美德与敬虔的精神。

最后，福音打破不同民族和种族之间偏见与仇恨的隔墙，从而改革国际关系。甚至一度分隔甚深、彼此敌视的犹太人与外邦人，也被它联合起来，围绕同一张圣餐桌，享有弟兄般的团契与和睦。基督教的精神真正是大公的、普世的，超越一切民族的区别。整个使徒教会，如同耶路撒冷的会众一样，都是“一心一意”。³¹诚然，教会偶尔也有纷扰，彼得与保罗之间、犹太基督徒与外邦基督徒之间，也曾有过暂时的冲突；但我们不应对此感到惊讶，反倒应当赞叹，和睦与仁爱的精神不断胜过旧性情与旧日境况的残余势力。保罗在希腊各教会中贫穷的外邦基督徒，捐款周济巴勒斯坦贫穷的犹太基督徒，借此表明他们对福音及其中团契的感激，因为这些都是他们从那母会领受的。³²基督徒都觉得彼此是“弟兄”，时刻铭记他们共同的起源与共同的归宿，并视“用和平彼此联络，竭力保守圣灵所赐合而为一的心”为神圣的义务。³³犹太人因属灵的骄傲和“odium generis humani”（对人类的仇恨）而憎恶一切外邦人；希腊人鄙视一切蛮族，认为他们只能算半个人；罗马人虽有强大的武力与谋略，却只能把被征服的民族拼凑成一个机械的集合体，一个没有灵魂的庞大躯体；基督教却单凭道德的力量，建立了一个普世的属灵帝国和圣徒的相通。这一联合体至今屹立不摇，并将不断扩展，直到将地上万国都包容在内，使之成为它活的肢体，并使众人与上帝和好。

§ 50. 各教会的属灵状况——亚细亚的七教会

我们不可设想，福音书作者和使徒以教训和榜样所树立的崇高圣洁标准，已经在他们的各教会中完全实现了。使徒教会纯洁无瑕、完全无缺的梦想，在使徒的著作中找不到依据；它只是作为理想，不断呈现在我们眼前，激发我们奋力追求。连受默示的使徒自己也不承认已经完全，我们就更不能指望他们所带领归信的人达到完全；这些人才刚从犹太社会和异教社会的谬误与败坏中出来，若非借着违反道德成长通常规律的神迹，就不可能顷刻间完全改变。

事实上，我们发现，每封书信都在应对某种特定的困难与危险。若不承认保罗各教会实际上并不完全，就无法理解他的任何一封书信。他发现，不仅有必要警戒他们防备属灵方面隐微的罪，甚至也必须警戒他们防备肉体方面粗鄙的罪。他欣然怀着感恩的心称赞他们的美德，也同样坦率无畏地谴责他们的错误与恶行。

大公书信和约翰的《启示录》所致意的各教会，情况也是如此。³⁴

《启示录》第二、第三章中的七封书信，使我们得以窥见使徒时期最后阶段教会的光明与阴暗面——首先是小亚细亚的教会，但也借此看到其他地区的教会。这些书信的布局都十分相似，呈现出一种优美的次序，本格尔 (Bengel) 已经对此作了很好的阐明。它们包括：(1) 基督吩咐写信给教会的“使者”。(2) 以某个威严的称号指称耶稣，这称号通常与他威严的显现有关（启1:13及下），并作为随后应许与警告的根据和保证。(3) 对使者，即对教会负有责任的领袖所说的话，无论他是一位主教，还是由牧师和教师组成的团体。无论如何，这些使者都是所托付给他们照管之民的代表，对他们所说的话，也同样适用于各教会。这一段话，也就是书信的主体，总是包括：(a) 简述教会当前的道德状况——包括其美德与缺点——并视情况加以称赞或责备；(b) 按照受信教会的主要特征，劝勉他们悔改，或持守忠信与忍耐；(c) 给得胜者的应许，并附上劝诫：“圣灵向众教会所说的话，凡有耳的，就应当听。”也有次序相反的，如前三封书信。这一变化把七教会分成两组，一组包括前三个，另一组包括其余四个，正如七印、七号、七碗的划分一样。那反复出现的劝诫：“凡有耳的”等，在原文中共有十个词。这并非无意义的文字游戏，而是运用旧约的象征数字体系；在这一体系中，三象征神性；四象征世界或人类；不可分割的七，是三与四之和（十二则是两者之积，同样如此），象征上帝与人之间不可解除的盟约；十（七加三）是整数，象征丰满与完全。

按照这些书信，各教会及其代表，就其道德与宗教状况而言，可分为三类：

1. 大体良善而纯洁的教会，即士每拿和非拉铁非。因此，在给这两个教会的信息中，我们找不到严格意义上劝勉悔改的话，只有鼓励他们在苦难中坚定、忍耐、喜乐的话。

士每拿 (Smyrna) 是伊奥尼亚 (Ionia) 一座十分古老、至今仍然繁荣的商业城市，坐落于士每拿湾，风景秀丽。那里的教会在外在境况上贫穷且受逼迫，前面还有更大的患难，但生命冠冕的盼望给了它安慰。第二世纪时，治理这个教会的是约翰的学生坡旅甲 (Polycarp)，他是一位忠信的殉道者。

非拉铁非 (Philadelphia) 位于吕底亚 (Lydia) 省，是国王阿塔罗斯·非拉德尔弗斯 (Attalus Philadelphus) 所建，并以他的名字命名，如今称为阿拉舍尔 (Ala-Schär)。这一地区盛产葡萄酒，却常遭地震。当地的教会在外表上同样贫穷而微小，却十分忠信，灵性兴旺；它在地上所遭受的一切患难与敌意，都将在天上得到丰厚的赏赐。

2. 大体处于邪恶与危急境地的教会，即撒狄和老底嘉。因此，在这里我们见到严厉的责备，以及恳切的悔改劝勉。

撒狄 (Sardis) 直到克罗伊索斯 (Croesus) 时代仍是吕底亚帝国繁荣的首都，如今却是牧人居住的一个凄凉小村。那里的教会固然有基督教的名号与外在形式，却没有其内在的信仰与生命之能力。因此，它已濒临属灵的死亡。然而，《启示录》3:4及下节将少数行为仍未受玷污的人，从败坏的众人中分别出来；不过，他们并未作为分离主义者脱离教会，为自己另立一个与之对抗的宗派。

老底嘉 (Laodicea) 是弗里吉亚 (Phrygia) 一座富庶的商业城市，离歌罗西 (Colosse) 和希拉波立 (Hierapolis) 不远，如今那里只剩一个名为埃斯基希萨尔 (Eski-Hissar) 的荒凉村庄。那里的教会骄傲地自以为灵性富足、无可指摘，实际上却是贫穷、瞎眼、赤身的，处于那最危险的冷漠与不冷不热的状态之中；从这种状态恢复昔日的坚决与热忱，比起初从天然的冷淡转向信仰还要困难。因此，有那可怕的警告：“我必从我口中把你吐出去。”（温水会使人呕吐。）然而，即使是老底嘉人，也没有被逼入绝望。主出于爱叩他们的门，并应许他们，只要彻底悔改，就能有份于羔羊的婚筵（3:20）。

3. 性质善恶混杂的教会，即以弗所、别迦摩和推雅推喇。在这些教会中，称赞与责备、应许与警告并存。

以弗所 (Ephesus) 当时是亚细亚教会的中心，确曾抵挡保罗所预言的诺斯替派 (Gnostic) 异端教师，忠实地保守所传给它的教义的纯正；但它失去了起初爱心的热忱，因此受到恳切的劝勉，要它悔改。它由此向我们呈现了一种死气沉沉、僵化的正统状态，各教会时常陷入这种状态。为纯正教义发热心，固然极其重要，但若没有活泼的敬虔与践行的爱心，也就毫无价值。致以弗所教会使者的书信，尤其适用于后来整个希腊教会。

每西亚 (Mysia) 的别迦摩 (Pergamum)，是这七座城中最北的一座，昔为亚细亚阿塔罗斯王朝 (Attalian dynasty) 诸王的驻地，以藏有二十万卷书的大型图书馆及制造羊皮纸闻名；羊皮纸因而得名 charta Pergamena。如今它称为贝尔加莫 (Bergamo)，是一个由土耳其人、希腊人和亚美尼亚人居住的村镇。当地教会曾在艰难的处境中表现出极大的忠信，却容许持有危险的诺斯替派谬论者留在其中。由于缺乏严格的纪律，它也受到悔改的呼召。

推雅推喇 (Thyatira) 是吕底亚一座制造业与商业繁荣的城市；其旧址上如今有一座颇具规模的土耳其城镇，名叫阿克希萨尔 (Ak-Hissar)，即“白色城堡”，有九座清真寺和一座希腊教堂。那里的教会以舍己、践行的爱心和忍耐而格外受到称赞，却也过分宽容那些以异教原则与习俗败坏基督教的谬论。

因此，后面这两个教会，尤其是推雅推喇，恰与以弗所形成鲜明对照，代表着热心实践的敬虔与理论上的宽纵主义相结合的状态。由于教义总会或多或少地影响实践，这也是一种危险的状态。唯有教义纯正与生活纯洁、理论上的正统与实践上的敬虔和谐结合、彼此促进的教会，才是真正健全而兴旺的教会。

历代神学家将小亚细亚这七个教会视为整个基督教会的缩影，是很有道理的。“无论是良善、邪恶，还是善恶混杂的状况，这些书信无不提供范例，也无不给予适切而有益的指引。”在这里，如同在各处一样，上帝的话语与使徒教会的历史，都显明它们适用于一切时代与境遇，并且对于宗教生活的一切状况与阶段，都蕴藏着取之不尽的教训、警戒与鼓励。

Original Text

CHAPTER VIII. CHRISTIAN LIFE IN THE APOSTOLIC CHURCH.

Sources.

The teaching and example of Christ as exhibited in the Gospels, and of the apostles in the Acts and Epistles; compared and contrasted with the rabbinical ethics and the state of Jewish society, and with the Greek systems of philosophy and the moral condition of the Roman empire, as described in the writings of Seneca, Tacitus, the Roman satirists, etc.

Literature.

I. The respective sections in the Histories of the Apost. Church by Neander: I. 229–283 (Germ. ed.); Schaff: §§ 109–123 (pp. 433–492); Lange: II. 495–534; Weizsäcker: 647–698.

II The works on the Theology of the Apostolic Age, by Schmid, Reuss, Baur, Weiss, etc.

3. The Systems of Christian Ethics by Schleiermacher, Rothe, Neander, Schmid, Wuttke, Harless, Martensen, Luthardt, and Lecky’s History of European Morals (1869), vol I. 357 sqq.

4. A. Thoma (pastor in Mannheim): Geschichte der christlichen Sittenlehre in der Zeit des Neuen Testamentes, Haarlem, 1879 (380 pp.). A crowned prize-essay of the Teyler Theol. Society. The first attempt of a separate critical history of N. T. ethics, but written from the negative standpoint of the Tübingen school, and hence very unsatisfactory. It is divided in three parts: I. The Ethics of Jesus; II. The Ethics of Paul; III. The Ethics of the Congregation.

V. Works which treat of Christian life in the post-apostolic age (Cave, Arnold, Schmidt, Chastel, Pressensé, etc.) will be noticed in the second period.

§ 44. The Power of Christianity.

Practical Christianity is the manifestation of a new life; a spiritual (as distinct from intellectual and moral) life; a supernatural (as distinct from natural) life; it is a life of holiness and peace; a life of union and communion with God the Father, the Son, and the Spirit; it is eternal life, beginning with regeneration and culminating in the resurrection. It lays hold of the inmost centre of man’s personality, emancipates him from the dominion of sin, and brings him into vital union with God in Christ; from this centre it acts as a purifying, ennobling, and regulating force upon all the faculties of man—the emotions, the will, and the intellect—and transforms even the body into a temple of the Holy Spirit.

Christianity rises far above all other religions in the theory and practice of virtue and piety. It sets forth the highest standard of love to God and to man; and this not merely as an abstract doctrine, or an object of effort and hope, but as a living fact in the person of Jesus Christ, whose life and example have more power and influence than all the maxims and precepts of sages and legislators. Deeds speak louder than words. Praecepta docent, exempla trahunt. The finest systems of moral philosophy have not been able to regenerate and conquer the world. The gospel of Christ has done it and is doing it constantly. The wisest men of Greece and Rome sanctioned slavery, polygamy, concubinage, oppression, revenge, infanticide; or they belied their purer maxims by their conduct. The ethical standard of the Jews was much higher; yet none of their patriarchs, kings, or prophets claimed perfection, and the Bible honestly reports the infirmities and sins, as well as the virtues, of Abraham, Jacob, Moses, David, and Solomon.

But the character of Christ from the manger to the cross is without spot or blemish; he is above reproach or suspicion, and acknowledged by friend and foe to be the purest as well as the wisest being that ever appeared on earth. He is the nearest approach which God can make to man, and which man can make to God; he represents the fullest imaginable and attain able harmony of the ideal and real, of the divine and human. The Christian church may degenerate in the hands of sinful men, but the doctrine and life of her founder are a never-failing fountain of purification.

The perfect life of harmony with God and devotion to the welfare of the human race, is to pass from Christ to his followers. Christian life is an imitation of the life of Christ. From his word and spirit, living and ruling in the church, an unbroken stream of redeeming, sanctifying, and glorifying power has been flowing forth upon individuals, families, and nations for these eighteen centuries, and will continue to flow till the world is transformed into the kingdom of heaven, and God becomes all in all.

One of the strongest proofs of the supernatural origin of Christianity, is its elevation above the natural culture and moral standard of its first professors. The most perfect doctrine and life described by unschooled fishermen of Galilee, who never before had been outside of Palestine, and were scarcely able to read and to write! And the profoundest mysteries of the kingdom of heaven, the incarnation, redemption, regeneration, resurrection, taught by the apostles to congregations of poor and illiterate peasants, slaves and freedmen! For "not many wise after the flesh, not many mighty, not many noble" were called, "but God chose the foolish things of the world, that he might put to shame them that are wise; and God chose the weak things of the world, that he might put to shame the things that are strong; and the base things of the world, and the things that are despised, did God choose, yea, and the things that are not, that he might bring to naught the things that are: that no flesh should glory before God. But of him are ye in Christ Jesus, who was made unto us wisdom from God, and righteousness and sanctification and redemption: that, according as it is written, he that glorieth, let him glory in the Lord."(1)

If we compare the moral atmosphere of the apostolic churches with the actual condition of surrounding Judaism and heathenism, the contrast is as startling as that between a green oasis with living fountains and lofty palm trees, and a barren desert of sand and stone. Judaism in its highest judicatory committed the crime of crimes, the crucifixion of the Saviour of the world, and hastened to its doom. Heathenism was fitly represented by such imperial monsters as Tiberius, Caligula, Nero, and Domitian, and exhibited a picture of hopeless corruption and decay, as described in the darkest colors not only by St. Paul, but by his heathen contemporary, the wisest Stoic moralist, the teacher and victim of Nero.(2)

Notes.

The rationalistic author of Supernatural Religion (vol. II. 487) makes the following remarkable concession: "The teaching of Jesus carried morality to the sublimest point attained, or even attainable, by humanity. The influence of his spiritual religion has been rendered doubly great by the unparalleled purity and elevation of his character. Surpassing in his sublime simplicity and earnestness the moral grandeur of Sâkya Muni, and putting to the blush the sometimes sullied, though generally admirable, teaching of Socrates and Plato, and the whole round of Greek philosophers, he presented the rare spectacle of a life, so far as we can estimate it, uniformly noble and consistent with his own lofty principles, so that the ’imitation of Christ’ has become almost the final word in the preaching of his religion, and must continue to be one of the most powerful elements of its permanence."

Lecky, likewise a rationalistic writer and historian of great ability and fairness, makes this weighty remark in his History of European Morals (vol. II. 9):, "It was reserved for Christianity to present to the world an ideal character, which through all the changes of eighteen centuries has inspired the hearts of men with an impassioned love; has shown itself capable of acting on all ages, nations, temperaments, and conditions; has been not only the highest pattern of virtue, but the strongest incentive to its practice, and has exercised so deep an influence that it may be truly said that the simple record of three short years of active life has done more to regenerate and to soften mankind than all the disquisitions of philosophers and all the exhortations of moralists. This has, indeed, been the wellspring of whatever is best and purest in Christian life. Amid all the sins and failings, amid all the priestcraft and persecution and fanaticism that have defaced the Church, it has preserved, in the character and example of its Founder, an enduring principle of regeneration."

To this we may add the testimony of the atheistic philosopher, John Stuart Mill from his essay on Theism, written shortly before his death (1873), and published, 1874, in Three Essays on Religion. (Am. ed., p. 253): "Above all, the most valuable part of the effect on the character which Christianity has produced, by holding up in a divine person a standard of excellence and a model for imitation, is available even to the absolute unbeliever, and can never more be lost to humanity. For it is Christ rather than God whom Christianity has held up to believers as the pattern of perfection for humanity. It is the God incarnate more than the God of the Jews, or of nature, who, being idealized, has taken so great and salutary a hold on the modem mind. And whatever else may be taken away from us by rational criticism, Christ is still left; a unique figure, not more unlike all his precursors than all his followers, even those who had the direct benefit of his personal teaching. It is of no use to say that Christ, as exhibited in the Gospels, is not historical, and that we know not how much of what is admirable has been super-added by the tradition of his followers. The tradition of followers suffices to insert any number of marvels, and may have inserted all the miracles which he is reputed to have wrought. But who among his disciples, or among their proselytes, was capable of inventing the sayings ascribed to Jesus, or of imagining the life and character revealed in the Gospels? Certainly not the fishermen of Galilee; as certainly not St. Paul, whose character and idiosyncrasies were of a totally different sort; still less the early Christian writers, in whom nothing is more evident than that the good which was in them was all derived, as they always professed that it was derived, from the higher source."

§ 45. The Spiritual Gifts.

Comp. the Commentaries on Rom. 12:3–9, and 1 Cor. 12–14.

The apostolic church was endowed from the day of Pentecost with all the needful spiritual gifts for the moral regeneration of the world. They formed, as it were, her bridal garment and her panoply against Jewish and Gentile opposition. They are called charisms(3) or gifts of grace, as distinguished from, though not opposed to, natural endowments. They are certain special energies and manifestations of the Holy Spirit in believers for the common good.(4) They are supernatural, therefore, in their origin; but they correspond to natural virtues, and in operation they follow all the mental and moral faculties of Dian, raising them to higher activity, and consecrating them to the service of Christ. They all rest on faith, that "gift of gifts."

The spiritual gifts may be divided into three classes: first, intellectual gifts of knowledge, mainly theoretical in their character, and concerned primarily with doctrine and theology; secondly, emotional gifts of feeling, appearing chiefly in divine worship and for immediate edification; and thirdly, practical gifts of will, devoted to the organization, government, and discipline of the church. They are not, however, abstractly separate, but work together harmoniously for the common purpose of edifying the body of Christ. In the New Testament ten charisms are specially mentioned; the first four have to do chiefly, though not exclusively, with doctrine, the next two with worship, and the remaining four with government and practical affairs.

1. The gift of Wisdom and Knowledge,(5) or of deep insight into the nature and system of the divine word and the doctrines of the Christian salvation.

2. The gift of Teaching.(6) or of practically applying the gift of knowledge; the power of clearly expounding the Scriptures for the instruction and edification of the people.

3. The gift of Prophecy,(7) akin to the two preceding, but addressed rather to pious feeling than to speculative reflection, and employing commonly the language of higher inspiration, rather than that of logical exposition and demonstration. It is by no means confined to the prediction of future events, but consists in disclosing the hidden counsel of God, the deeper sense of the Scriptures, the secret state of the heart, the abyss of sin, and the glory of redeeming grace. It appears particularly in creative periods, times of mighty revival; while the gift of reaching suits better a quiet state of natural growth in the church. Both act not only in the sphere of doctrine and theology, but also in worship, and might in this view be reckoned also among the gifts of feeling.

4. The gift of Discerning Spirits,(8) serves mainly as a guide to the third gift, by discriminating between true prophets and false, between divine inspiration and a merely human or satanic enthusiasm. In a wider sense it is a deep discernment in separating truth and error, and in judging of moral and religious character; a holy criticism still ever necessary to the purity of Christian doctrine and the administration of the discipline of the church.

5. The gift of Tongues,(9) or of an utterance proceeding from a state of unconscious ecstasy in the speaker, and unintelligible to the hearer unless interpreted—thus differing from prophecy, which requires a self-conscious though highly elevated state of feeling, serves directly to profit the congregation, and is therefore preferred by Paul.(10) The speaking with tongues is an involuntary psalm-like prayer or song, uttered from a spiritual trance, and in a peculiar language inspired by the Holy Spirit. The soul is almost entirely passive, an instrument on which the Spirit plays his heavenly melodies. This gift has, therefore, properly, nothing to do with the spread of the church among foreign peoples and in foreign languages, but is purely an act of worship, for the edification primarily of the speaker himself, and indirectly, through interpretation, for the hearers. It appeared, first, indeed, on the day of Pentecost, but before Peter’s address to the people, which was the proper mission-sermon; and we meet with it afterwards in the house of Cornelius and in the Corinthian congregation, as a means of edification for believers, and not, at least not directly, for unbelieving hearers, although it served to them as a significant sign,(11) arresting their attention to the supernatural power in the church.

6. The gift of Interpretation (12) is the supplement of the glossolalia, and makes that gift profitable to the congregation by translating the prayers and songs from the language of the spirit and of ecstasy(13) into that of the understanding and of sober self-consciousness.(14) The preponderance of reflection here puts this gift as properly in the first class as in the second.

7. The gift of Ministry and Help,(15) that is, of special qualification primarily for the office of deacon and deaconess, or for the regular ecclesiastical care of the poor and the sick, and, in the wide sense, for all labors of Christian charity and philanthropy.

8. The gift of church Government and the Care of souls,(16) indispensable to all pastors and rulers of the church, above all to the apostles and apostolic men, in proportion to the extent of their respective fields of labor. Peter warns his co-presbyters against the temptation to hierarchical arrogance and tyranny over conscience, of which so many priests, bishops, patriarchs, and popes have since been guilty; and points them to the sublime example of the great Shepherd and Archbishop, who, in infinite love, laid down his life for the sheep.(17)

9. The gift of Miracles(18) is the power possessed by the apostles and apostolic men, like Stephen, to heal all sorts of physical maladies, to cast out demons, to raise the dead, and perform other similar works, in virtue of an extraordinary energy or faith, by word, prayer, and the laying on of hands in the name of Jesus, and for his glory. These miracles were outward credentials and seals of the divine mission of the apostles in a time and among a people which required such sensible helps to faith. But as Christianity became established in the world, it could point to its continued moral effects as the best evidence of its truth, and the necessity for outward physical miracles ceased.

10. Finally, the gift of Love, the greatest, most precious, most useful, most needful, and most enduring of all, described and extolled by St. Paul in the thirteenth chapter of 1 Corinthians with the pen of an angel in the vision and enjoyment of the God of infinite love himself.(19) Love is natural kindness and affection sanctified and raised to the spiritual sphere, or rather a new heavenly affection created in the soul by the experience of the saving love of God in Christ. As faith lies at the bottom of all charisms, so love is not properly a separate gift, but the soul of all the gifts, guarding them from abuse for selfish and ambitious purposes, making them available for the common good, ruling, uniting, and completing them. It alone gives them their true value, and without love even the speaking with tongues of angels, and a faith which removes mountains, are nothing before God. It holds heaven and earth in its embrace. It "believeth all things," and when faith fails, it "hopeth all things," and when hope fails, it "endureth all things," but it "never fails." As love is the most needful of all the gifts on earth, so it will also outlast all the others and be the ornament and joy of the saints in heaven. For love is the inmost essence, the heart, as it were, of God, the ground of all his attributes, and the motive of all his works. It is the beginning and the end of creation, redemption, and sanctification—the link which unites us with the triune God, the cardinal virtue of Christianity, the fulfilling of the law, the bond of perfectness, and the fountain of bliss.

§ 46. Christianity in Individuals.

The transforming spiritual power of Christianity appears first in the lives of individuals. The apostles and primitive Christians rose to a morality and piety far above that of the heroes of heathen virtue and even that of the Jewish saints. Their daily walk was a living union with Christ, ever seeking the glory of God and the salvation of men. Many of the cardinal virtues, humility, for example, and love for enemies, were unknown before the Christian day.

Peter, Paul, and John represent the various leading forms or types of Christian piety, as well as of theology. They were not without defect, indeed they themselves acknowledged only one sinless being, their Lord and Master, and they confessed their own shortcomings;(20) yet they were as nearly perfect as it is possible to be in a sinful world; and the moral influence of their lives and writings on all generations of the church is absolutely immeasurable. Each exhibits the spirit and life of Christ in a peculiar way. For the gospel does not destroy, but redeems and sanctifies the natural talents and tempers of men. It consecrates the fire of a Peter, the energy of a Paul, and the pensiveness of a John to the same service of God. It most strikingly displays its new creating power in the sudden conversion of the apostle of the Gentiles from a most dangerous foe to a most efficient friend of the church. Upon Paul the Spirit of God came as an overwhelming storm; upon John, as a gentle, refreshing breeze. But in all dwelt the same new, supernatural, divine principle of life. All are living apologies for Christianity, whose force no truth-loving heart can resist.

Notice, too, the moral effects of the gospel in the female characters of the New Testament. Christianity raises woman from the slavish position which she held both in Judaism and in heathendom, to her true moral dignity and importance; makes her an heir of the same salvation with man,(21) and opens to her a field for the noblest and loveliest virtues, without thrusting her, after the manner of modern pseudo-philanthropic schemes of emancipation, out of her appropriate sphere of private, domestic life, and thus stripping her of her fairest ornament and peculiar charm.

The Virgin Mary marks the turning point in the history of the female sex. As the mother of Christ, the second Adam, she corresponds to Eve, and is, in a spiritual sense, the mother of all living.(22) In her, the "blessed among women," the whole sex wass blessed, and the curse removed which had hung over the era of the fall. She was not, indeed, free from actual and native sin, as is now, taught, without the slightest ground in Scripture, by the Roman church since the 8th of December, 1854. On the contrary, as a daughter of Adam, she needed, like all men, redemption and sanctification through Christ, the sole author of sinless holiness, and she herself expressly calls God her Saviour.(23) But in the mother and educator of the Saviour of the world we no doubt may and should revere, though not worship, the model of female Christian virtue, of purity, tenderness, simplicity, humility, perfect obedience to God, and unreserved surrender to Christ. Next to her we have a lovely group of female disciples and friends around the Lord: Mary, the wife of Clopas; Salome, the mother of James and John; Mary of Bethany, who sat at Jesus’ feet; her busy and hospitable sister, Martha; Mary of Magdala, whom the Lord healed of a demoniacal possession; the sinner, who washed his feet with her tears of penitence and wiped them with her hair; and all the noble women, who ministered to the Son of man in his earthly poverty with the gifts of their love,(24) lingered last around his cross,(25) and were the first at his open sepulchre on the, morning of the resurrection.(26)

Henceforth we find woman no longer a slave of man and tool of lust, but the pride and joy of her husband, the fond mother training her children to virtue and godliness, the ornament and treasure of the family, the faithful sister, the zealous servant of the congregation in every work of Christian charity, the sister of mercy, the martyr with superhuman courage, the guardian angel of peace, the example of purity, humility, gentleness, patience, love, and fidelity unto death. Such women were unknown before. The heathen Libanius, the enthusiastic eulogist of old Grecian culture, pronounced an involuntary eulogy on Christianity when he exclaimed, as he looked at the mother of Chrysostom: "What women the Christians have!"

§ 47. Christianity and the Family.

H. Gregoire: De l’influence du christianisme sur la condition des femmes. Paris, 1821.

F. Münter: Die Christin im heidnischen Hause vor den Zeiten Constantin’s des Grossen. Kopenhagen, 1828.

Julia Kavanagh: Women of Christianity, Exemplary for Acts of Piety and Charity. Lond., 1851; N. York, 1866.

Thus raising the female sex to its true freedom and dignity, Christianity transforms and sanctifies the entire family life. It abolishes polygamy, and makes monogamy the proper form of marriage; it condemns concubinage with all forms of unchastity and impurity. It presents the mutual duties of husband and wife, and of parents and children, in their true light, and exhibits marriage as a copy of the mystical union of Christ with his bride, the church; thus imparting to it a holy character and a heavenly end.(27)

Henceforth the family, though still rooted, as before, in the soil of nature, in the mystery of sexual love, is spiritualized and becomes a nursery of the purest and noblest virtues, a miniature church, where the father, as shepherd, daily leads his household into the pastures of the divine word, and, as priest, offers to the Lord the sacrifice of their common petition, intercession, thanksgiving, and praise.

With the married state, the single also, as an exception to the rule, is consecrated by the gospel to the service of the kingdom of God; as we see in a Paul, a Barnabas, and a John,(28) and in the history of missions and of ascetic piety. The enthusiasm for celibacy, which spread so soon throughout the ancient church, must be regarded as a one-sided, though natural and, upon the whole, beneficial reaction against the rotten condition and misery of family life among the heathen.

§ 48. Christianity and Slavery.

Literature.

H. Wallon (Prof. of Modern History in Paris): Histoire de l’esclavage dans l’antiquité, Par. 1879, 3 vols., treats very thoroughly of Slavery in the Orient, among the Greeks and the Romans, with an Introduction on modern negro slavery in the Colonies.

Augustin Cochin (ancien maire et conseiller municipal de la Ville de Paris): L’abolition de l’esclavage, Paris, 1862, 2 vols. This work treats not only of the modern abolition of slavery, but includes in vol. II., p. 348–470, an able discussion of the relation of Christianity and slavery.

Möhler (R. C., d. 1848): Bruchstücke aus der Geschichte der Aufhebung der Sklaverei, 1834. ("Vermischte Schriften," vol. II., p. 54.)

H. Wiskemann: Die Sklaverei. Leiden, 1866. A crowned prize-essay.

P. Allard: Les esclaves chrétiens depuis les premiers temps de l’église jusqu’ à la fin de la domination romaine en Occident Paris, 1876 (480 pp.).

G. V. Lechler: Sklaverei und Christenthum. Leipz. 1877–78.

Ph. Schaff: Slavery and the Bible, in his "Christ and Christianity," N. York and London, 1885, pp. 184–212.

Compare the Commentaries on the Epistle of Paul to Philemon, especially Braune, and Lightfoot (in Colossians and Philemon, 1875).

The numerous American works on slavery by Channing, Parker, Hodge, Barnes, Wilson, Cheever, Bledsoe, and others, relate to the question of negro slavery, now providentially abolished by the civil war of 1861–65.

To Christianity we owe the gradual extinction of slavery.

This evil has rested as a curse on all nations, and at the time of Christ the greater part of the existing race was bound in beastly degradation—even in civilized Greece and Rome the slaves being more numerous than the free-born and the freedmen. The greatest philosophers of antiquity vindicated slavery as a natural and necessary institution; and Aristotle declared all barbarians to be slaves by birth, fit for nothing but obedience. According to the Roman law, "slaves had no head in the State, no name, no title, no register;" they had no rights of matrimony, and no protection against adultery; they could be bought and sold, or given away, as personal property; they might be tortured for evidence, or even put to death, at the discretion of their master. In the language of a distinguished writer on civil law, the slaves in the Roman empire "were in a much worse state than any cattle whatsoever." Cato the elder expelled his old and sick slaves out of house and home. Hadrian, one of the most humane of the emperors, wilfully destroyed the eye of one of his slaves with a pencil. Roman ladies punished their maids with sharp iron instruments for the most trifling offences, while attending half-naked, on their toilet. Such legal degradation and cruel treatment had the worst effect upon the character of the slaves. They are described by the ancient writers as mean, cowardly, abject, false, voracious, intemperate, voluptuous, also as hard and cruel when placed over others. A proverb prevailed in the Roman empire: "As many slaves, so many enemies." Hence the constant danger of servile insurrections, which more than once brought the republic to the brink of ruin, and seemed to justify the severest measures in self-defence.

Judaism, indeed, stood on higher ground than this; yet it tolerated slavery, though with wise precautions against maltreatment, and with the significant ordinance, that in the year of jubilee, which prefigured the renovation of the theocracy, all Hebrew slaves should go free.(29)

This system of permanent oppression and moral degradation the gospel opposes rather by its whole spirit than by any special law. It nowhere recommends outward violence and revolutionary measures, which in those times would have been worse than useless, but provides an internal radical cure, which first mitigates the evil, takes away its sting, and effects at last its entire abolition. Christianity aims, first of all, to redeem man, without regard to rank or condition, from that worst bondage, the curse of sin, and to give him true spiritual freedom; it confirms the original unity of all men in the image of God, and teaches the common redemption and spiritual equality of all before God in Christ;(30) it insists on love as the highest duty and virtue, which itself inwardly levels social distinctions; and it addresses the comfort and consolation of the gospel particularly to all the poor, the persecuted, and the oppressed. Paul sent back to his earthly master the fugitive slave, Onesimus, whom he had converted to Christ and to his duty, that he might restore his character where he had lost it; but he expressly charged Philemon to receive and treat the bondman hereafter as a beloved brother in Christ, yea, as the apostle’s own heart. It is impossible to conceive of a more radical cure of the evil in those times and within the limits of established laws and customs. And it is impossible to find in ancient literature a parallel to the little Epistle to Philemon for gentlemanly courtesy and delicacy, as well as for tender sympathy with a poor slave.

This Christian spirit of love, humanity, justice, and freedom, as it pervades the whole New Testament, has also, in fact, gradually abolished the institution of slavery in almost all civilized nations, and will not rest till all the chains of sin and misery are broken, till the personal and eternal dignity of man redeemed by Christ is universally acknowledged, and the evangelical freedom and brotherhood of men are perfectly attained.

Note on the Number and Condition of Slaves in Greece and Rome.

Attica numbered, according to Ctesicles, under the governorship of Demetrius the Phalerian (309 b.c.), 400,000 slaves, 10,000 foreigners, and only 21,000 free citizens. In Sparta the disproportion was still greater.

As to the Roman empire, Gibbon estimates the number of slaves under the reign of Claudius at no less than one half of the entire population, i.e., about sixty millions (I. 52, ed. Milman, N. Y., 1850). According to Robertson there were twice as many slaves as free citizens, and Blair (in his work on Roman slavery, Edinb. 1833, p. 15) estimates over three slaves to one freeman between the conquest of Greece (146 b.c.) and the reign of Alexander Severna (a.d. 222–235). The proportion was of course very different in the cities and in the rural districts. The majority of the plebs urbana were poor and unable to keep slaves; and the support of slaves in the city was much more expensive than in the country. Marquardt assumes the proportion of slaves to freemen in Rome to have been three to two. Friedländer (Sittengeschichte Roms. l. 55, fourth ed.) thinks it impossible to make a correct general estimate, as we do not know the number of wealthy families. But we know that Rome a.d. 24 was thrown into consternation by the fear of a slave insurrection (Tacit. Ann. IV. 27). Athenaeus, as quoted by Gibbon (I. 51) boldly asserts that he knew very many (pavmpolloi) Romans who possessed, not for use, but ostentation, ten and even twenty thousand slaves. In a single palace at Rome, that of Pedanius Secundus, then prefect of the city, four hundred slaves were maintained, and were all executed for not preventing their master’s murder (Tacit. Ann. XIV. 42, 43).

The legal condition of the slaves is thus described by Taylor on Civil Law, as quoted in Cooper’s Justinian, p. 411: "Slaves were held pro nullis, pro mortuis, pro quadrupedibus; nay, were in a much worse state than any cattle whatsoever. They had no head in the state, no name, no title, or register; they were not capable of being injured; nor could they take by purchase or descent; they had no heirs, and therefore could make no will; they were not entitled to the rights and considerations of matrimony, and therefore had no relief in case of adultery; nor were they proper objects of cognation or affinity, but of quasi-cognation only; they could be sold, transferred, or pawned, as goods or personal estate, for goods they were, and as such they were esteemed; they might be tortured for evidence, punished at the discretion of their lord, and even put to death by his authority; together with many other civil incapacities which I have no room to enumerate." Gibbon (I. 48) thinks that "against such internal enemies, whose desperate insurrections had more then once reduced the republic to the brink of destruction, the most severe regulations and the most cruel treatment seemed almost justifiable by the great law of self-preservation."

The individual treatment of slaves depended on the character of the master. As a rule it was harsh and cruel. The bloody spectacles of the amphitheatre stupefied the finer sensibilities even in women. Juvenal describes a Roman mistress who ordered her female slaves to be unmercifully lashed in her presence till the whippers were worn out; Ovid warns the ladies not to scratch the face or stick needles into the naked arms of the servants who adorned them; and before Hadrian a mistress could condemn a slave to the death of crucifixion without assigning a reason. See the references in Friedländer, I. 466. It is but just to remark that the philosophers of the first and second century, Seneca, Pliny, and Plutarch, entertained much milder views on this subject than the older writers, and commend a humane treatment of the slaves; also that the Antonines improved their condition to some extent, and took the oft abused jurisdiction of life and death over the slaves out of private hands and vested it in the magistrates. But at that time Christian principles and sentiments already freely circulated throughout the empire, and exerted a silent influence even over the educated heathen. This unconscious atmospheric influence, so to speak, is continually exerted by Christianity over the surrounding world, which without this would be far worse than it actually is.

§ 49. Christianity and Society.

Christianity enters with its leaven-like virtue the whole civil and social life of a people, and leads it on the path of progress in all genuine civilization. It nowhere prescribes, indeed, a particular form of government, and carefully abstains from all improper interference with political and secular affairs. It accommodates itself to monarchical and republican institutions, and can flourish even under oppression and persecution from the State, as the history of the first three centuries sufficiently shows. But it teaches the true nature and aim of all government, and the duties of rulers and subjects; it promotes the abolition of bad laws and institutions, and the establishment of good; it is in principle opposed alike to despotism and anarchy; it tends, under every form of government, towards order, propriety, justice, humanity, and peace; it fills the ruler with a sense of responsibility to the supreme king and judge, and the ruled with the spirit of loyalty, virtue, and piety.

Finally, the Gospel reforms the international relations by breaking down the partition walls of prejudice and hatred among the different nations and races. It unites in brotherly fellowship and harmony around the same communion table even the Jews and the Gentiles, once so bitterly separate and hostile. The spirit of Christianity, truly catholic or universal, rises above all national distinctions. Like the congregation at Jerusalem, the whole apostolic church was of "one heart and of one soul."(31) It had its occasional troubles, indeed, temporary collisions between a Peter and a Paul, between Jewish and Gentile Christians; but instead of wondering at these, we must admire the constant victory of the spirit of harmony and love over the remaining forces of the old nature and of a former state of things. The poor Gentile Christians of Paul’s churches in Greece sent their charities to the poor Jewish Christians in Palestine, and thus proved their gratitude for the gospel and its fellowship, which they had received from that mother church.(32) The Christians all felt themselves to be "brethren," were constantly impressed with their common origin and their common destiny, and considered it their sacred duty to "keep the unity of the spirit in the bond of peace."(33) While the Jews, in their spiritual pride and "odium generis humani" abhorred all Gentiles; while the Greeks despised all barbarians as only half men; and while the Romans, with all their might and policy, could bring their conquered nations only into a mechanical conglomeration, a giant body without a soul; Christianity, by purely moral means) founded a universal spiritual empire and a communion of saints, which stands unshaken to this day, and will spread till it embraces all the nations of the earth as its living members, and reconciles all to God.

§ 50. Spiritual Condition of the Congregations.—The Seven Churches in Asia.

We must not suppose that the high standard of holiness set up in doctrine and example by the evangelists and apostles was fully realized in their congregations. The dream of the spotless purity and perfection of the apostolic church finds no support in the apostolic writings, except as an ideal which is constantly held up before our vision to stimulate our energies. If the inspired apostles themselves disclaimed perfection, much less can we expect it from their converts, who had just come from the errors and corruptions of Jewish and heathen society, and could not be transformed at once without a miracle in violation of the ordinary laws of moral growth.

We find, in fact, that every Epistle meets some particular difficulty and danger. No letter of Paul can be understood without the admission of the actual imperfection of his congregations. He found it necessary to warn them even against the vulgar sins of the flesh as well as against the refined sins of the spirit. He cheerfully and thankfully commended their virtues, and as frankly and fearlessly condemned their errors and vices.

The same is true of the churches addressed in the Catholic Epistles, and in the Revelation of John.(34)

The seven Epistles in the second and third chapters of the Apocalypse give us a glimpse of the church in its light and shade in the last stage of the apostolic age—primarily in Asia Minor, but through it also in other lands. These letters are all very much alike in their plan, and present a beautiful order, which has been well pointed out by Bengel. They contain (1) a command of Christ to write to the "angel" of the congregation. (2) A designation of Jesus by some imposing title, which generally refers to his majestic appearance (Rev. 1:13 sqq.), and serves as the basis and warrant of the subsequent promises and threatenings. (3) The address to the angel, or the responsible head of the congregation, be it a single bishop or the college of pastors and teachers. The angels are, at all events, the representatives of the people committed to their charge, and what was said to them applies at the same time to the churches. This address, or the epistle proper, consists always of (a) a short sketch of the present moral condition of the congregation—both its virtues and defects—with commendation or censure as the case may be; (b) an exhortation either to repentance or to faithfulness and patience, according to the prevailing character of the church addressed; (c) a promise to him who overcomes, together with the admonition: "He that hath an ear, let him hear what the Spirit saith unto the churches," or the same in the reverse order, as in the first three epistles. This latter variation divides the seven churches into two groups, one comprising the first three, the other the remaining four, just as the seven seals, the seven trumpets, and the seven vials are divided. The ever-recurring admonition: "He that hath an ear," etc., consists of ten words. This is no unmeaning play, but an application of the Old Testament system of symbolical numbers, in which three was the symbol of the Godhead; four of the world or humanity; the indivisible number seven, the sum of three and four (as also twelve, their product), the symbol of the indissoluble covenant between God and man; and ten (seven and three), the round number, the symbol of fulness and completion.

As to their moral and religious condition, the churches and the representatives fall, according to the Epistles, into three classes:

1. Those which were predominantly good and pure, viz., those of Smyrna and Philadelphia. Hence, in the messages to these two churches we find no exhortation to repentance in the strict sense of the word, but only an encouragement to be steadfast, patient, and joyful under suffering.

The church of Smyrna (a very ancient, still flourishing commercial city in Ionia, beautifully located on the bay of Smyrna) was externally poor and persecuted, and had still greater tribulation in view, but is cheered with the prospect of the crown of life. It was in the second century ruled by Polycarp, a pupil of John, and a faithful martyr.

Philadelphia (a city built by king Attalus Philadelphus, and named after him, now Ala-Schär), in the province of Lydia, a rich wine region, but subject to earthquakes, was the seat of a church likewise poor and small outwardly, but very faithful and spiritually flourishing—a church which was to have all the tribulations and hostility it met with on earth abundantly rewarded in heaven.

2. Churches which were in a predominantly evil and critical condition, viz., those of Sardis and Laodicea. Here accordingly we find severe censure and earnest exhortation to repentance.

The church at Sardis (till the time of Croesus the flourishing capital of the Lydian empire, but now a miserable hamlet of shepherds) had indeed the name and outward form of Christianity, but not its inward power of faith and life. Hence it was on the brink of spiritual death. Yet Rev. 3:4 sq., distinguishes from the corrupt mass a few souls which had kept their walk undefiled, without, however, breaking away from the congregation as separatists, and setting up an opposition sect for themselves.

The church of Laodicea (a wealthy commercial city of Phrygia, not far from Colosse and Hierapolis, where now stands only a desolate village by the name of Eski-Hissar) proudly fancied itself spiritually rich and faultless, but was in truth poor and blind and naked, and in that most dangerous state of indifference and lukewarmness from which it is more difficult to return to the former decision and ardor, than it was to pass at first from the natural coldness to faith. Hence the fearful threatening: "I will spew thee out of my mouth." (Lukewarm water produces vomiting.) Yet even the Laodiceans are not driven to despair. The Lord, in love, knocks at their door and promises them, on condition of thorough repentance, a part in the marriage-supper of the lamb (3:20).

3. Churches of a mixed character, viz., those of Ephesus, Pergamum, and Thyatira. In these cases commendation and censure, promise and threatening are united.

Ephesus, then the metropolis of the Asian church, had withstood, indeed, the Gnostic errorists predicted by Paul, and faithfully maintained the purity of the doctrine delivered to it; but it had lost the ardor of its first love, and it is, therefore, earnestly exhorted to repent. It thus represents to us that state of dead, petrified orthodoxy, into which various churches oftentimes fall. Zeal for pure doctrine is, indeed, of the highest importance, but worthless without living piety and active love. The Epistle to the angel of the church of Ephesus is peculiarly applicable to the later Greek church as a whole.

Pergamum in Mysia (the northernmost of these seven cities, formerly the residence of the kings of Asia of the Attalian dynasty, and renowned for its large library of 200,000 volumes and the manufacture of parchment; hence the name charta Pergamena;—now Bergamo, a village inhabited by Turks, Greeks, and Armenians) was the seat of a church, which under trying circumstances had shown great fidelity, but tolerated in her bosom those who held dangerous Gnostic errors. For this want of rigid discipline she also is called on to repent.

The church of Thyatira (a flourishing manufacturing and commercial city in Lydia, on the site of which now stands a considerable Turkish town called Ak-Hissar, or "the White Castle," with nine mosques and one Greek church) was very favorably distinguished for self-denying, active love and patience, but was likewise too indulgent towards errors which corrupted Christianity with heathen principles and practices.

The last two churches, especially that of Thyatira, form thus the exact counterpart to that of Ephesus, and are the representatives of a zealous practical piety in union with theoretical latitudinarianism. As doctrine always has more or less influence on practice, this also is a dangerous state. That church alone is truly sound and flourishing in which purity of doctrine and purity of life, theoretical orthodoxy and practical piety are harmoniously united and promote one another.

With good reason have theologians in all ages regarded these, seven churches of Asia Minor as a miniature of the whole Christian church. "There is no condition, good, bad, or mixed, of which these epistles do not present a sample, and for which they do not give suitable and wholesome direction." Here, as everywhere, the word of God and the history of the apostolic church evince their applicability to all times and circumstances, and their inexhaustible fulness of instruction, warning, and encouragement for all states and stages of religious life.

Original Footnotes

(1; original 607): 1 Cor. 2:26-31.

(2; original 608): Comp. the well known passage of Seneca, De Ira, II. 8: Omnia sceleribus ac vitiis plena sunt; plus committitur, quam quod possit coërcitione sanari. Certatur ingenti quodam nequitim certamine: maior quotidie peccandi cupiditas, minor verecundia est. Expulso melioris aequorisque respectu, quocunque visum est, libido se impingit; nec furtiva jam scelera sunt, praeter oculos eunt. Adeoque in publicum missa nequitia est, et in omnium pectoribus evaluit, ut innocentia non rara, sed nulla sit. Numquid enim singuli aut pauci rupere legem; undique, velut signo dato, ad fas nefasque miscendum coörti sunt." Similar passages might be gathered from Thucydides, Aristophanes, Sallust, Horace, Juvenal, Persius, Tacitus, Suetonius. It is true that almost every heathen vice still exists in Christian countries, but they exist in spite of the Christian religion, while the heathen immorality was the legitimate result of idolatry, and was sanctioned by the example of the heathen gods, and the apotheosis of the worst Roman emperors.

(3; original 609): carivsmata.

(4; original 610): Comp. 1 Cor. 12:7; 14:12.

(5; original 611): sofiva andgnw'si".

(6; original 612): didaskaliva.

(7; original 613): profhteiva.

(8; original 614): diakrivsei" pneumavtwn.

(9; original 615): kainai'" or eJtevrai" glwvssai" lalei'", or simply, glwvssai", sometimes glwvssh/ lalei'n See § 24, p. 234.

(10; original 616): 1 Cor. 14:1-5.

(11; original 617): shmei'on. 1 Cor. 14:22.

(12; original 618): eJrmhneiva glwssw'n.

(13; original 619): Of the pneu'ma.

(14; original 620): Of the nou'".

(15; original 621): diakoniva, ajntilhvyei".

(16; original 622): kubernhvsei", gubernationes.

(17; original 623): 1 Pet. 5:1-4.

(18; original 624): cavrisma ijamavtwn, duvnami" shmeivwn kai; teravtwn.

(19; original 625): The Revision of 1881 has substituted, in 1 Cor. 13, "love" (with Tyndale, Cranmer, and Geneva Vers.) for "charity" (which came into James’s Version from the Vulgate through the Rheims Vera.). This change has given great offence among conservative people. It may indeed involve a loss of rhythm in that wonderful chapter, but it was necessitated by the restricted meaning which charity has assumed in modem usage, being identical with practical benevolence, so that Paul might seem to contradict himself in 13:3 and 8. The Saxon word love is just as strong, as musical, and as sacred as the Latin charity, and its meaning is far more comprehensive and enduring, embracing both God’s love to man and man’slove to God, and to his neighbor, both here and hereafter.

(20; original 626): Comp. Phil. 3:12-14; 2 Cor. 4:7 sqq.; 12:7; 1 Cor. 9:27; Jas. 3:9; 1 John 1:8, 9; Gal. 2:11; Acts 15:36-39; 23:3 sqq.

(21; original 627): 1 Pet. 3:7; Gal 3:28.

(22; original 628): Gen. 3:20. This parallel was first drawn by Irenaeus, but overdrawn and abused by later fathers in the service of Mariolatry.

(23; original 629): Luke 1:47 ejpi tw' qew'/ tw'/ swth'riv mou.

(24; original 630): Luke 8:3; Matt. 27:55; Mark 15:41.

(25; original 631): John 19:15.

(26; original 632): . Matt. 28:1; John 20:1.

(27; original 633): Comp. Eph. 5:22-23; 6:1-9; Col. 8:18-25.

(28; original 634): Comp. Matt. 19:10-12; 1 Cor. 7:7 sqq.; Rev. 14:4.

(29; original 635): Lev. 25:10: "Ye shall hallow the fiftieth year, and proclaim liberty throughout the land unto all the inhabitants thereof." Comp. Isa. 41: 1; Luke 4:19.

(30; original 636): Gal. 8:28; Col. 3:11.

(31; original 637): Acts 4:32.

(32; original 638): Gal. 2:10; 2 Cor. 9:12-15; Rom. 15:25-27.

(33; original 639): Gal. 8:28; Eph. 4:3.

(34; original 640): The remainder of this paragraph is taken in part from my Hist. of the Apost. Church (§108, pp. 427 sqq.), where it is connected with the life and labors of St. John. Comp. also the monographs of Trench and Plumptre on the Seven Churches, and Lange’s Com. on Rev. 2 and 3.

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